Microwave-clock timescale with instability on order of $10^{-17}$

Abstract: The fundamental limits of atomic fountains as operational clocks are considered. Four rubidium fountains in operation at the U.S. Naval Observatory for over 5.5 years have demonstrated unprecedented long-term stability for continuously running clocks [1,2]. With only these rubidium fountains, a post-processed timescale can be created that demonstrates superior long-term performance to any individual clock by compensating for occasional frequency steps. By comparing to the world's primary standards we demonstrate instability of this rubidium fountain timescale reaching the mid $10^{-17}$'s and zero drift at the level of $1.3 \times 10^{-19}$/day. We discuss fundamental limits due to common mode behaviour or individual fountain performance that cannot be corrected.