An extensive grid of DARWIN models for M-type AGB stars I. Mass-loss rates and other properties of dust-driven winds

Abstract: The purpose of this work is to present an extensive grid of dynamical atmosphere and wind models for M-type AGB stars, covering a wide range of relevant stellar parameters. We used the DARWIN code, which includes frequency-dependent radiation-hydrodynamics and a time-dependent description of dust condensation and evaporation, to simulate the dynamical atmosphere. The wind-driving mechanism is photon scattering on submicron-sized Mg$2$SiO$_4$ grains. The grid consists of $\sim4000$ models, with luminosities from $L\star=890\,{\mathrm{L}}\odot$ to $L\star=40000\,{\mathrm{L}}\odot$ and effective temperatures from 2200K to 3400K. For the first time different current stellar masses are explored with M-type DARWIN models, ranging from 0.75M$\odot$ to 3M$\odot$. The modelling results are radial atmospheric structures, dynamical properties such as mass-loss rates and wind velocities, and dust properties (e.g. grain sizes, dust-to-gas ratios, and degree of condensed Si). We find that the mass-loss rates of the models correlate strongly with luminosity. They also correlate with the ratio $L/M_$: increasing $L_/M_$ by an order of magnitude increases the mass-loss rates by about three orders of magnitude, which may naturally create a superwind regime in evolution models. There is, however, no discernible trend of mass-loss rate with effective temperature, in contrast to what is found for C-type AGB stars. We also find that the mass-loss rates level off at luminosities higher than $\sim14000\,{\mathrm{L}}_\odot$, and consequently at pulsation periods longer than $\sim800$ days. The final grain radii range from 0.25 micron to 0.6 micron. The amount of condensed Si is typically between 10% and 40%, with gas-to-dust mass ratios between 500 and 4000.