P1 center electron spin clusters are prevalent in type Ib diamond

Abstract: Understanding the spatial distribution of P1 centers is crucial for diamond-based sensors and quantum devices. P1 centers serve as a polarization source for DNP quantum sensing and play a significant role in the relaxation of NV centers. Additionally, the distribution of NV centers correlates with the distribution of P1 centers, as NV centers are formed through the conversion of P1 centers. We utilized dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) and pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) techniques that revealed strong clustering of a significant population of P1 centers that exhibit exchange coupling and produce asymmetric lineshapes. The $^{13}$C DNP frequency profile at high magnetic field revealed a pattern that requires an asymmetric EPR lineshape of the P1 clusters with electron-electron (e-e) coupling strengths exceeding the $^{13}$C nuclear Larmor frequency. EPR and DNP characterization at high magnetic fields was necessary to resolve energy contributions from different e-e couplings. We employed a two-frequency pump-probe pulsed Electron Double Resonance (ELDOR) technique to show crosstalk between the isolated and clustered P1 centers. This finding implies that the clustered P1 centers affect all P1 populations. Direct observation of clustered P1 centers and their asymmetric lineshape is a novel and crucial insight into understanding magnetic noise sources for quantum information applications of diamonds and for designing diamond-based polarizing agents with optimized DNP efficiency for $^{13}$C and other nuclear spins of analytes. We propose that room temperature $^{13}$C DNP at high field, achievable through straightforward modifications to existing solution-state NMR systems, is a potent tool for evaluating and controlling diamond defects.