Decades matter: Agricultural diversification increases financial profitability, biodiversity, and ecosystem services over time

Abstract: Sustainable agriculture in the 21st century requires the production of sufficient food while reducing the environmental impact and safeguarding human livelihoods. Many studies have confirmed agricultural diversification practices such as intercropping, organic farming and soil inoculations as a suitable pathway to achieve these goals, but long-term viability of socioeconomic and ecological benefits is uncertain. Here, we quantified the long-term effects of agricultural diversification practices on socioeconomic and ecological benefits based on 50 years of data from 184 meta-analyses and 4,260 effect sizes. We showed that, with neutral crop yield over time, financial profitability, most variables related to biological communities, all aspects of soil quality, and carbon sequestration benefits increased by up to 2823% over 20 years of practice. Non-crop diversification practices and the use of organic amendments increased benefits by up to 2000% after 50 years. A trade-off analysis between yield and other services showed win-win outcomes during the first 25 years. Our synthesis provides the urgently needed evidence for farmers and other decision-makers that diversification increases long-term profitability, biodiversity, and climate mitigation benefits, and therefore, allows upscaling diversification for climate change mitigation and global food system transformation.