Opinion on sustainability-performance relationship: Na-ion batteries versus Li-ion batteries

Abstract: A new era for energy storage devices, such as rechargeable batteries, has been opened in the last decades. However, commercially available energy storage devices are based mainly on critical elements such as Li, Co, Mn, P, Ni, and graphite opening sustainability concerns for the industry and society. Yet, these elements are crucial for both, battery cells as well as for electrode and electrolyte material properties. New research directions point toward the development of materials free of such critical elements, but unfortunately often at the price of lower performance. In the present work, we study the interlink between sustainability and properties at both, material and battery cell levels of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and Na-ion batteries (SIBs). Sustainability factors, such as supply and environmental risks, are assessed based on the critical element content in the cells and the individual risks associated with these materials. Although LIB cells exhibit superior energy density compared to their Na-ion counterparts, their sustainability is compromised by the consumption of Li and graphite. SIBs do not work with graphite-like LIBs due to the difficulty of intercalating Na within the structure of graphite. They work with other carbonaceous materials that can be produced in a sustainable way from biomass. Moreover, the composition of cathode materials significantly influences the sustainability of SIBs cells, with cells containing P and V presenting notable supply and environmental concerns. SIBs, with cathodes such as a layered typed Na-metal oxide which contains Ni and Mn as redox centers and anodes such as hard carbon, demonstrate exceptional sustainability scores. Their potential energy densities are projected to match that of a LiFePO4 (LFP)-based LIB, making them increasingly attractive for commercial applications.