Quantum machine learning advantages beyond hardness of evaluation

Abstract: The most general examples of quantum learning advantages involve data labeled by cryptographic or intrinsically quantum functions, where classical learners are limited by the infeasibility of evaluating the labeling functions using polynomial-sized classical circuits. While broad in scope, such results reveal little about advantages arising from the learning process itself. In cryptographic settings, further insight is possible via random-generatability - the ability to classically generate labeled data - enabling hardness proofs for identification tasks, where the goal is to identify the labeling function from a dataset, even when evaluation is classically intractable. These tasks are particularly relevant in quantum contexts, including Hamiltonian learning and identifying physically meaningful order parameters. However, for quantum functions, random-generatability is conjectured not to hold, leaving no known identification advantages in genuinely quantum regimes. In this work, we give the first proofs of quantum identification learning advantages under standard complexity assumptions. We confirm that quantum-hard functions are not random-generatable unless BQP is contained in the second level of the polynomial hierarchy, ruling out cryptographic-style data generation strategies. We then introduce a new approach: we show that verifiable identification - solving the identification task for valid datasets while rejecting invalid ones - is classically hard for quantum labeling functions unless BQP is in the polynomial hierarchy. Finally, we show that, for a broad class of tasks, solving the identification problem implies verifiable identification in the polynomial hierarchy. This yields our main result: a natural class of quantum identification tasks solvable by quantum learners but hard for classical learners unless BQP is in the polynomial hierarchy.