Not All Sub-Neptune Exoplanets Have Magma Oceans

Abstract: The evolution and structure of sub-Neptunes may be strongly influenced by interactions between the outer gaseous envelope of the planet and a surface magma ocean. However, given the wide variety of permissible interior structures of these planets, it is unclear whether conditions at the envelope-mantle boundary will always permit a molten silicate layer, or whether some sub-Neptunes might instead host a solid silicate surface. In this work, we use internal structure modeling to perform an extensive exploration of surface conditions within the sub-Neptune population across a range of bulk and atmospheric parameters. We find that a significant portion of the population may lack present-day magma oceans. In particular, planets with a high atmospheric mean molecular weight and large envelope mass fraction are likely to instead have a solid silicate surface, since the pressure at the envelope-mantle boundary is high enough that the silicates will be in solid post-perovskite phase. This result is particularly relevant given recent inferences of high-mean molecular weight atmospheres from JWST observations of several sub-Neptunes. We apply this approach to a number of sub-Neptunes with existing or upcoming JWST observations, and find that in almost all cases, a range of solutions exist which do not possess a present-day magma ocean. Our analysis provides critical context for interpreting sub-Neptunes and their atmospheres.